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Chemistry

Substitution Overview: Nucleophilic, Electrophilic, and Radical Reactions

A substitution is a chemical reaction that occurs when one atom or group in a molecule is swapped with another. Substitutions help create medicines, polymers, and other compounds we use daily. Certain antibiotics are made by using substitution reactions to adjust chemical structures. In this online textbook, you’ll learn about the main types of substitution—nucleophilic, …

esters-structure-reaction-properties-front
Chemistry

Esters: Structure, Properties, and Reactions

Esters are everywhere—from the fruity aroma of bananas to the chemical structure of everyday plastics. As part of organic chemistry, esters form through simple reactions between acids and alcohols, making them key compounds in labs and everyday products. Our study guide will explore ester structure, esterification, key reactions, ester bonds, and how to name esters …

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Chemistry

Carboxylic Acids in Chemistry: From Methanoic Acid to Ethanoic Acid

If you’ve ever smelled vinegar or rancid butter, you’ve already encountered carboxylic acids. Acetic acid, which gives vinegar its sour taste, and butyric acid, responsible for the smell of rancid butter, are both common examples. Carboxylic acids are characterized by a carboxyl group (-COOH), which influences their behavior in chemical reactions. Let’s explore what makes …

electrophilic-addition-reaction-diagram
Chemistry

Addition Reactions in Chemistry: Electrophilic, Nucleophilic, And Hydrogenation

Think about how vegetable oil turns into margarine or how simple plastic products are made. These everyday transformations happen through addition reactions. In these reactions, molecules combine to form larger ones. From the hydrogenation of oils to the creation of polymers like plastic, addition reactions are all around us. Let’s explore the addition types, like …

isomerism-types-structural-stereoisomers
Chemistry

Isomerism Types: Chain, Positional, Geometric, and Optical Isomers

Imagine two compounds with the same number of atoms, yet one smells like oranges while the other smells like lemons. This difference occurs because of isomerism—where molecules have identical molecular formulas but different structures. These structural changes can lead to distinct chemical and physical properties, just like the scents in these fruits. Isomers are divided …

hydrocarbons-types-alkanes-alkenes
Chemistry

Hydrocarbons Types and Naming: Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes, and Cyclic Forms

Hydrocarbons are essential organic compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen. These molecules are the foundation for many fuels and industrial materials. Hydrocarbons can have different bonds between carbon atoms, changing their structure and properties. Some hydrocarbons have only single bonds, while others may have double or triple bonds. This variety allows them to be …